Research
The science underneath.
Every curve, weighting, and dose-response in the TPF engine traces back to a paper. Below: the principal sources, by domain. Each title links to the paper via Google Scholar — read it yourself.
Named protocols (Norwegian 4×4, Tabata, Yasso 800s, MAF, Cardiac Output Method, etc.) are cited for methodology comparison only — their inclusion doesn’t imply endorsement of TPF by the original authors or rights-holders.
Volume & dose-response
- Ralston GW, Kilgore L, Wyatt FB, Baker JS (2017). The effect of weekly set volume on strength gain: a meta-analysis. Sports Medicine 47(12).
- Schoenfeld BJ, Ogborn D, Krieger JW (2017). Dose-response relationship between weekly resistance training volume and increases in muscle mass: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences.
- Schoenfeld BJ (2010). The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.
- Krieger JW (2010). Single vs. multiple sets of resistance exercise for muscle hypertrophy: a meta-analysis. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.
- Krieger JW (2009). Single vs. multiple sets of resistance exercises for muscle strength: a meta-analysis. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 23(6).
- Rhea MR, Alvar BA, Burkett LN, Ball SD (2003). A meta-analysis to determine the dose response for strength development. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise.
- Heaselgrave SR, Blacker J, Smeuninx B, McKendry J, Breen L (2018). Dose-response relationship of weekly resistance-training volume and frequency on muscular adaptations in trained men. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance.
- Brigatto FA, et al. (2019). Effect of resistance training volume on hypertrophy and 1RM strength in trained men. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.
- Israetel M, Hoffmann J, Smith C (2021). Scientific Principles of Hypertrophy Training. Renaissance Periodization.
- Helms ER, Aragon AA, Fitschen PJ (2018). The Muscle and Strength Pyramid: Training (2nd ed.).
- Schoenfeld BJ, Contreras B, Krieger J, et al. (2019). Resistance training volume enhances muscle hypertrophy but not strength in trained men. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 51(1).
- Mangine GT, et al. (2015). The effect of training volume and intensity on improvements in muscular strength and size in resistance-trained men. Physiological Reports 3(8).
- Morton RW, et al. (2016). Neither load nor systemic hormones determine resistance training-mediated hypertrophy or strength gains in resistance-trained young men. Journal of Applied Physiology 121(1).
Proximity to failure & load
- Refalo MC, et al. (2023). Influence of resistance training proximity-to-failure on skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Journal of Sports Sciences.
- Robinson ZP, et al. (2024). Exploring the dose-response relationship between estimated resistance training proximity to failure, strength gain, and muscle hypertrophy. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.
- Helms ER, et al. (2018). RPE and velocity loss as autoregulation tools in resistance training. Sports Medicine 48(4).
- Pareja-Blanco F, et al. (2017). Effects of velocity loss during resistance training on athletic performance, strength gains and muscle adaptations. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports.
- Lasevicius T, et al. (2018). Effects of different intensities of resistance training with equated volume load on muscle strength and hypertrophy. European Journal of Sport Science 18(6).
- Zourdos MC, et al. (2016). Novel resistance training-specific RPE scale measuring repetitions in reserve. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 30(1).
- Helms ER, et al. (2016). RPE-based training in a competitive powerlifting sample. Journal of Fitness Research 5(2).
- Carroll KM, et al. (2019). Visual feedback of training-load to improve velocity-load relationship. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 33(7).
- Fry AC (2004). The role of resistance exercise intensity on muscle fibre adaptations. Sports Medicine 34(10).
- Spiering BA, et al. (2008). Resistance exercise biology: manipulation of resistance exercise programme variables determines the responses of cellular and molecular signalling pathways. Sports Medicine 38(7).
Stretched position & lengthened partials
- Kassiano W, et al. (2022). Resistance training in the lengthened position induces greater muscle hypertrophy than the shortened position. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise.
- Kassiano W, et al. (2023). Bigger gains in the lengthened biceps: position-specific hypertrophy training. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise.
- Wolf M, et al. (2024). Partial vs. full range of motion resistance training: a meta-analysis on hypertrophic adaptations. Sports Medicine.
- Maeo S, et al. (2022). Greater hamstring muscle hypertrophy from lengthened-bias training. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 54(11).
- Maeo S, et al. (2025). Longer muscles get stronger: partial ROM training in the lengthened position. Frontiers in Physiology.
Intensity techniques
- Fagerli B (2010). Myo-Reps: a method to maximise time-efficient hypertrophy. Original protocol publication.
- Bjørnsen T, et al. (2019). Type 1 muscle fibre hypertrophy after blood flow-restricted training in powerlifters. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise.
- Tufano JJ, et al. (2017). Cluster sets vs. traditional sets for resistance training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 31(3).
- Prestes J, et al. (2019). Strength and muscular adaptations after 6 weeks of rest-pause vs. traditional multiple-sets resistance training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.
- Karimifard S, et al. (2023). Rest-pause resistance training promotes greater strength and muscle size gains than traditional sets. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness.
- Beardsley C, Schoenfeld BJ (2018). Myo-reps and training-to-failure for hypertrophy. Strength & Conditioning Journal.
Inter-set rest
- Singer EA, et al. (2024). Effect of inter-set rest interval on resistance training-induced adaptations: meta-analysis. European Journal of Applied Physiology.
- Schoenfeld BJ, et al. (2016). Longer inter-set rest periods enhance muscle strength and hypertrophy in resistance-trained men. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 30(7).
- de Salles BF, et al. (2009). Rest interval between sets in strength training. Sports Medicine 39(9).
- Henselmans M, Schoenfeld BJ (2014). The effect of inter-set rest intervals on resistance exercise-induced muscle hypertrophy. Sports Medicine 44(12).
Programming & periodisation
- Schoenfeld BJ, Grgic J, Krieger JW (2017). How many times per week should a muscle be trained to maximise muscle hypertrophy? A meta-analysis of studies examining training frequency. Sports Medicine 47(12).
- Helms ER, Morgan A, Valdez A (2019). The Muscle and Strength Pyramid: Training (2nd ed.).
- Helms ER, et al. (2014). Recommendations for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: resistance and cardiovascular training. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness.
- Israetel M, Hoffmann J (2017). How Much Should I Train? — MEV / MAV / MRV volume-landmark framework. Renaissance Periodization.
- Galpin AJ (2022). Lecture series on recovery, adaptation, and periodisation. Absolute Rest.
- Norton L (2020). The Complete Contest Prep Guide. BioLayne LLC.
- Barakat C, et al. (2020). Body Recomposition: Can Trained Individuals Build Muscle and Lose Fat at the Same Time? Strength & Conditioning Journal 42(5).
Conditioning & energy-systems physiology
- Jamieson J (2009). Ultimate MMA Conditioning. 8WeeksOut.
- Galpin AJ × Huberman Lab guest series (2022, 2023). Strength, hypertrophy, endurance, fatigue, recovery.
- Helgerud J, et al. (2007). Aerobic high-intensity intervals improve VO2max more than moderate training. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 39(4).
- Tabata I, et al. (1996). Effects of moderate-intensity endurance and high-intensity intermittent training on anaerobic capacity and VO2max. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 28(10).
- Buchheit M, Laursen PB (2013). High-intensity interval training: solutions to the programming puzzle (Parts I + II). Sports Medicine 43(5) and 43(10).
- Laursen PB, Buchheit M (2019). Science and Application of High-Intensity Interval Training. Human Kinetics.
- Daniels J (2014). Daniels' Running Formula (3rd ed.). Human Kinetics.
- Seiler S (2010). What is best practice for training intensity and duration distribution in endurance athletes? International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 5(3).
- Stöggl T, Sperlich B (2014). Polarised training has greater impact on key endurance variables than threshold, high-intensity, or high-volume training. Frontiers in Physiology 5:33.
- MacInnis MJ, Gibala MJ (2017). Physiological adaptations to interval training and the role of exercise intensity. Journal of Physiology 595(9).
- Milanović Z, et al. (2015). Effectiveness of HIIT vs. continuous endurance training for VO2max improvements: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine 45(10).
- Gist NH, et al. (2014). Sprint interval training effects on aerobic capacity: a systematic review. Sports Medicine 44(2).
- Joyner MJ, Coyle EF (2008). Endurance exercise performance: the physiology of champions. Journal of Physiology 586(1).
- Bishop D, Edge J (2006). Determinants of repeated-sprint ability. European Journal of Applied Physiology 97(4).
- Brooks GA (2018). The science and translation of lactate shuttle theory. Cell Metabolism 27(4).
- Coggan AR, Allen H (2010). Training and Racing with a Power Meter.
Training load & recovery models
- Banister EW (1991). Modeling elite athletic performance. In: Physiological Testing of the High-Performance Athlete (2nd ed.).
- Banister EW, Calvert TW (1980). Planning for future performance: implications for long-term training. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 5(3).
- Edwards S (1993). The Heart Rate Monitor Book — five-zone TRIMP framework.
- Foster C, et al. (2001). A new approach to monitoring exercise training (session-RPE). JSCR 15(1) / MSSE 33(9).
- Williams S, West S, Cross MJ, Stokes KA (2017). A better way to determine the acute:chronic workload ratio? — EWMA formulation. British Journal of Sports Medicine 51(3).
- Busso T (2003). Variable dose-response relationship between exercise training and performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 35(7).
- Vanrenterghem J, et al. (2017). Training load monitoring in team sports: a novel framework separating physiological and biomechanical load-adaptation pathways. Sports Medicine 47(11).
Concurrent training & EPOC
- Hickson RC (1980). Interference of strength development by simultaneously training for strength and endurance. European Journal of Applied Physiology 45(2-3).
- Wilson JM, et al. (2012). Concurrent training: a meta-analysis of interference effects between aerobic and resistance exercise. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 26(8).
- Schumann M, et al. (2022). Compatibility of concurrent aerobic and strength training for skeletal muscle size and function: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine 52(3).
- Coffey VG, Hawley JA (2017). Concurrent exercise training: do opposites distract? Journal of Physiology 595(9).
- Børsheim E, Bahr R (2003). Effect of exercise intensity, duration and mode on post-exercise oxygen consumption. Sports Medicine 33(14).
- LaForgia J, Withers RT, Gore CJ (2006). Effects of exercise intensity and duration on the excess post-exercise oxygen consumption. Journal of Sports Sciences 24(12).
- Knab AM, et al. (2011). A 45-minute vigorous exercise bout increases metabolic rate for 14 hours. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 43(9).
1RM estimation
Injury risk & load monitoring (caveated)
- Gabbett TJ (2016). The training-injury prevention paradox: should athletes be training smarter and harder? British Journal of Sports Medicine 50(5).
- Impellizzeri FM, et al. (2020). Acute:chronic workload ratio: conceptual issues and fundamental pitfalls. British Journal of Sports Medicine.
Every value and formula is version-controlled and documented internally. The specific weightings, multipliers, and per-exercise calibrations stay with TPF.
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